Native Performers in the Jazz Press

Mildred Bailey was one of the most in-demand singers in the swing era. The majority of the articles and interviews from the jazz press during her lifetime does not mention her Coeur d'Alene heritage, but a few more in-depth pieces briefly explore her Native identity.

This interview from Down Beat in 1938 asks whether or not her heritage is "a myth," a common question in this era as many Americans claimed dubious Native lineages, while other Americans were surprised to see Natives in "unexpected places."¹ Mildred responds affirmatively, but neither the singer nor interviewer dwell on the response.

Likewise, in a 1946 Band Leaders, Bailey mentions her upbringing only to quickly pivot to her musical background.

The press around trombonist Russell Moore, on the other hand, often led with his identity. In part due to Moore's own nickname, "Big Chief," as well as the American fascination with Native blood quantum ("full-blooded"), the jazz press often verged on exoticism.

This small feature from a 1952 Down Beat notes that "there are other jazz musicians who are part Indian, but Moore is the only full-blooded one in big time jazz."

The majority of the press during his career mentions his Pima identity in one way or another, sometimes insensitively, often as a novelty. But in the RIPM archive, there are more retrospective articles about Moore's career than contemporaneous coverage.

Toward the end of his life and posthumously, jazz writers engaged with his racial identity to highlight the importance of Moore's legacy in jazz, as in this jazz profile from Mecca in 1974.

Some artists seemingly avoided exoticism in the jazz press entirely. Bassist Oscar Pettiford's Native ancestry is rarely mentioned in articles from his era. When it is mentioned, it is brief and factual.

International and U.S. jazz journals did not focus on Pettiford's race for marketing or in analyzing his music. Similarly, Pettiford is not often quoted or interviewed regarding his Native ancestry.

These two samples from Metronome and Jazz Hot are representative of how Pettiford is regarded in the press. Writers focus almost exclusively on his virtuosity and influence in the field.

International and U.S. jazz journals did not focus on Pettiford's race for marketing or in analyzing his music. Similarly, Pettiford is not often quoted or interviewed regarding his Native ancestry.

These two samples from Metronome and Jazz Hot are representative of how Pettiford is regarded in the press. Writers focus almost exclusively on his virtuosity and influence in the field.

While Native musicians have been a part of jazz since its inception, Native musical influences were not prevalent in the scene. "Native" tunes in jazz were typically jazz renditions of Tin Pan Alley exoticist pieces or classical Indianist works, like the famous swing versions of "By the Waters of Minnetonka" by Indianist Thurlow Lieurance.

In the 1969, Jim Pepper, Kaw and Muscogee saxophonist, combined Native musical aesthetics with jazz in "Witchi Tai To" based on a peyote song given to him by his grandfather. The song was a commercial success and led Pepper to continue creating Native/jazz fusion throughout his career.

Pepper was clearly proud of his heritage and his unique fusion of musical aesthetics. But even he was guarded about his racial identity in interviews.

In this interview with Don Heckman in Jazz & Pop, Heckman asks, "Can we talk about your Indian background?" Pepper responds, "Well, I don't really want to get into it, you know, like that, except if you want to talk about the tune Witchi Tai To..."

Pepper's control of the conversation signals a new tone that corresponds with this era of civil rights and the American Indian Movement of the late 1960s: a refusal to be reduced to a novelty and choosing how to be represented by the media.